Masoud Gheisari, PhD Student and Javier Irizarry
Georgia Institute of Technology
Atlanta, Georgia

“The [construction] job superintendent is like the conductor of a symphony orchestra. He must see that all elements are fitted together at the right time and sequence” (Diamant & Debo, 1988, p. 8). This construction conductor is responsible for the on-time and within budget completion of construction projects (Gunderson, 2008). This project reports part of the preliminary results of the third phase of the exploratory sequential mixed methods research intended to determine the competencies (also referred to as skill sets) and attributes required by a construction superintendent to be successful. Surveys were completed by 469 participants working in commercial, residential, heavy-civil, mechanical, electrical, and metal stud and drywall sectors of the construction industry. The 77% response rate may indicate interest in the subject. The results yielded a ranking of 43 competencies and attributes required for success as determined by the participants. This aspect of the research project compares the competencies and attributes as they are ranked by individuals working in the various sectors of the construction industry. Looking at differences and similarities may help construction practitioners and academicians in construction education develop education and training curricula to support improvement in specific competencies and/or attributes. The phases, which were revised after Phase I and again after Phase II, are presented in a flow chart below. The intent of Phase III was to expand the number of variables and reduce some of the delimitations imposed in the first two research phases. The research results from Phases I and II informed the primarily quantitative survey instrument with embedded open-ended questions. The authors are in the process of analyzing the quantitative data using SPSS and they plan on using NVivo9 to help organize and analyze the responses to open-ended questions in the survey.

Key Words: construction superintendent, construction supervision, project superintendent, construction skills, mixed methods research

For several years, the construction industry has been one of the largest industries in the United States. Over the course of the last decade, this industry has continued to grow at a constant rate. This growth pattern has placed an increasing importance upon accredited construction education programs to supply bright and motivated individuals capable of entering the construction arena upon graduation. This demand calls upon higher education institutions to expand their current program offerings or allow for the introduction of new four year construction management programs at institutions not currently specializing in the discipline. The problems associated with a demand for improved / or new programs stem from the fact that limited information exists on the sequential design of such programs. A program matrix by the American Council of Construction Education (ACCE) is available; however, the proposed matrix does not address an implementation sequence which is a crucial aspect associated with the design and execution of any program. The implementation design refers to required staffing needs, the number of needed students to sustain a program over time, and the alignment of construction management classes in existing applied science departments like engineering, architecture, technology or business. This study conducted a content analysis of 22 randomly selected construction programs at State, Private and Liberal Art Universities. An analysis matrix was created by grouping classes at these selected Universities within first, second, third and fourth year categories based on their offering sequences. In addition 11 interviews with department heads at the selected Universities willing to participate were conducted and documented in NVivo, a qualitative data software application. Alignment between the content analysis matrix and NVivo not only allowed the researcher to replicate a program design based on existing construction management programs but also to amass valuable leadership information from construction management program directors. The study is ongoing and its implications are generalizable and twofold in nature, by providing higher education institutions interested in launching construction management programs with an implementation schema as well as providing existing programs with an outline for improved program design.

Key Words: Program Design, Construction Management, Curricula Matrix

Chris Koelliker, Roger Killingsworth and J. Mark Taylor
Auburn University
Auburn, Alabama

Conceptual or preliminary project estimating has long been a part of the building process. With the shift from the traditional design-bid-build method to design-build, collaborative, and the emerging BIM based procedures, the responsibility of providing the conceptual estimate is shifting from the design team to the general contractor. It remains, however, that someone has to formulate an operating budget that is accurate enough to determine the feasibility of the project. A case study was initiated documenting the pre-construction estimating process for a Regional Airport terminal expansion project to identify the methods used to develop the estimates and to identify the critical factors affecting the reliability of the budget. This was done through a series of interviews with key personnel representing the owner, the design team, and the construction management team to determine the methods and history of estimating through the project planning and design process. Questions were asked to determine the stage of the construction process for each estimate, the estimating methods used, the amount of information available for the estimate, the experience of the estimator, and, for later estimates, the reasons for changes in price. The interviews offered a multi-discipline view on the major cost factors that ultimately shaped the design and budget of the terminal building. Preliminary results developed from a comparison of the cost breakdown of the various estimates show the effects that changes in scope, incomplete project information, lengthy delays in the approval process, and delays in securing funding had on the project cost and estimate accuracy. Preliminary results also confirm the importance of experience, communication, and subcontractor involvement for estimate accuracy.

Key Words: Preliminary estimates, conceptual estimating, scope change, delay costs, lack of communication costs

Santhosh R Chinnayeluka and Emerald M. Roider, PhD
Louisiana State University
Baton Rouge, Louisiana

This research involves a case study analysis, performed through the integration of building information modeling with energy simulation modeling, of the energy performance characteristics of four residential framing methods. The case study is based on the Louisiana State University Agricultural Center’s showcase home, known as the LaHouse Home and Landscape Resource Center, which serves as a display of sustainable construction materials and technologies. LaHouse was constructed using insulated concrete forms, structural insulated panels, advanced framing, and standard framing methods. Sustainable construction is an increasingly relevant topic for the United States residential construction industry. Agencies such as the U.S. Green Building Council and the Environmental Protection Agency have developed standards and rating systems that provide guidelines to support contractors and prospective owners and developers in the implementation of sustainable technologies, and the National Association of Home Builders (NAHB) recently unveiled a residential green building rating system known as the NAHB Nation Green Building Program. However, limited information is available to enable decision making for optimal integration of these technologies. While many residential contractors, architects, and home-buyers today are concerned about the environment and interested in sustainable construction technologies, the perceived higher initial costs of innovative materials and methodologies and a lack of life-cycle cost and performance data present significant barriers in the implementation of such techniques. Therefore, a need exists for the development of whole building design and evaluation models to allow decision making in all phases of a building project, including pre-design, design, construction, operation and maintenance, and retirement. This research seeks to provide much needed information with respect to residential framing systems and the corresponding expected energy performance, as well as to present a methodology for the integration of building information modeling and energy simulation in performance based design. To conduct the analysis, an as built building information model, based on the showcase home, LaHouse, is created in AutoDesk® RevitTM and used to simulate the energy utilization of the four different framing systems. Two simulation engines are utilized for the energy modeling: the Department of Energy’s EnergyPlus and Integrated Environmental Solutions (IES). Information from the Revit model is either imported directly into the energy analysis programs in the case of the IES software, or to Autodesk® Ecotect® Analysis for processing before importing to EnergyPlus. Energy utilization data obtained from the performance monitoring systems installed in the LaHouse are compared to the simulation results, as well as with manufacturers’ published performance characteristics. The methodology and results from this research will be used in future work to establish the framework for a performance based design approach for residential homes with associated performance metrics through the integration of building information modeling, energy simulation and performance monitoring.

Key Words: Building Information Modeling, Sustainable Construction, Energy Modeling, Performance Based Design

Richard C. Fobair II, MSBC, MARE, CGC, LEED-AP
University of Florida
Gainesville, Florida

This paper presents a model for assessing the job creation potential of energy conservation investments from construction through upstream manufacturing and raw material extraction. The model is designed for residential and small commercial projects in the southeast United States but can be customized for use in other regions. Outputs from the model include numbers of retrofit jobs, manufacturing jobs, and raw/elemental material suppliers jobs. Levels of job creation are mapped at each stage in the value stream. This model deconstructs an investment using reverse-estimation techniques. Reverse-estimation is a process that separates an investment (e.g. the contract amount) into primary and secondary elements of an estimate, such as profit, overhead and general work packages. The investment is divided into costs: first for construction installation, secondly for manufacturing, and thirdly for upstream raw/elemental materials suppliers located within the United States. Costs are allocated by project building-use based on the CSI MasterFormat (1995 edition) divisions. For construction installation, the process proceeds step by step and accounts for profit, overhead, callbacks/warranty work, cost of labor, and cost of materials. For manufacturing, the process proceeds step by step starting with the materials portion of the investment. Markups, overheads and taxes for manufacturer, wholesaler, and retailer are considered, and then the residual amount is divided into cost of labor, cost of raw/elemental materials, and cost of equipment. For upstream raw/elemental materials suppliers the process proceeds step by step and accounts for profit, overhead, taxes, cost of labor, cost of materials, and cost of equipment. The labor portion of the investment is reconfigured into full-time equivalent jobs utilizing loaded labor rates and typical crew make-up. The model is sensitive to adjustable variables, such as worker skill level, allocation of worker time per skill level, rate of pay, and benefits. This research provides new insight in three ways. First, it provides the socially responsible investor who prefers profit satisficing over profit maximizing a measurement technique for assessing the social benefit of energy conservation. Second, it provides to government a tool that can be utilized to forecast magnitude of job creation for economic development policies before an investment, thereby allowing policy makers to establish social goals for investment programs in energy conservation retrofits. Third, knowledge of job creation in the value stream for energy conservation retrofits is undeveloped. This research maps job creation for the retrofit and examines magnitude factors of job creation at several levels in the value stream.

Key Words: Job Creation; Value Stream Mapping; Energy Conservation; Building Retrofit

Vera M. Novak, PhD. Student
Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University
Blacksburg, Virginia

The unresolved tension of time, cost and quality (T/C/Q) parameters remains the limiting constraint for many construction projects. Yet, the nature of our environmental challenges and “flatter” world economy demand solutions which require not only the successful integration of T/C/Q , but add a higher level of expectation for meaningful social contribution and responsibility for the construction industry’s share of global energy challenges. Traditional project and construction delivery systems have had limited success in delivering sustainability goals, as they have been viewed as additional constraints to the existing tension of T/C/Q, and thus results in cost increases from nontraditional materials, increased levels of building performance expectations and added labor costs. Indeed, sustainability, or more precisely energy efficiency and durability measures, may be the very catalyst needed to realize the much lauded integrated design and project delivery approach, and the rational for working across boundaries to reveal, capture and fund the synergies from this collaboration. The area of investigation for this research will be lean construction, as a conceptual foundation and fundamental practice of optimizing the product, not the pieces, and makes possible significant improvement in T/C/Q as well as project metrics for green building. While the lean operating system has been increasingly recognized from a technical process perspective, this research takes another level of analysis to explore the underlying contribution of the human perspective, i.e., the relationships between individual, organizational, and team collaboration competencies. The research seeks to substantiate the correlation between successful project delivery and the collaborative competencies within a team. The defining conditions of a lean construction team will be determined through an iterative process of case study analysis of a single construction company with multiple branches, followed by a second round of analysis on 10 – 15 companies with successfully implemented lean construction practices. The proposed methodology is Qualitative Comparison Analysis (QCA), which allows systematic cross-case comparisons, while at the same time giving justice to within-case complexity, particularly in small-n research designs. The analysis will test the hypothesis that positive presence of a “lean culture” is a necessary and significant condition for a successful lean construction team, upon which other criteria are dependent. Success is determined by projects delivered on time, on budget, and to specifications. The outcome of this research can substantiate the need for developing a similar level of collaboration skills in workforce training and construction related curricula. In a later time frame, this research will further identify the emotional intelligence profiling of these lean teams, which can provide an underlying framework for the specific skills to be developed in students and contractors.

Key Words: lean construction, sustainability, collaboration competencies

Umberto C Gatti
University of New Mexico
Albuquerque, New Mexico

Despite improvements in equipment and workplace ergonomics, the construction industry is still characterized by physically demanding activities often performed in highly variable and harsh environments. Thus, construction workers usually undergo severe physical strain. Anecdotal evidence suggests that there is a reciprocal relationship between physically demanding work, occurrence of unsafe behavior, and productivity. In fact, excessive physical strain may lead to decreased productivity, inattentiveness, poor-quality work, accidents, and injuries. Furthermore, a continuous exposure to excessive level of physical strain may increase the risk of developing musculoskeletal or cardiovascular disorders. Hence, a remote and automated monitoring system able to assess physical strain through a combined analysis of workers’ physiological parameters (e.g., heart rate) and environmental conditions (e.g., temperature) may be an important step in improving safety and productivity. Environmental conditions can be easily assessed. However, an effective monitoring of workers’ physiological parameters presents several challenges. In fact, previous studies show limitations regarding the monitoring of physiological parameters. In some studies the measuring equipment was experienced as clumsy and uncomfortable because it interfered with the subject’s routine activities and/or could not be worn for the duration of the work day. In other studies the techniques selected to evaluate physical parameters were suitable only for a small number of subjects, and if suitable they could not monitor the subjects continuously. However, construction worker’s physical parameters can now be monitored by recently-introduced and non-intrusive devices called Physiological Status Monitors (PSMs). These devices have already been used to monitor and enhance activities of firefighters, soldiers, and professional athletes. This research study is seeking several objectives. Firstly, to delineate a set of ideas that provides the basis for the development of a monitoring system able to implement non-invasive technologies to continuously assess construction worker’s physical strain. Then, three PSMs are selected to assess whether or not they can effectively monitor a person during dynamic activities similar to construction workforce’s routine activities. This assessment is accomplished through a comparison between measurements obtained with PSMs and standard laboratory instruments. Lastly, the relation between physical strain and productivity is analyzed. In particular, the hypothesis tested states that an increase in physical strain leads to a decrease in productivity.

Key Words: Physical Strain, Occupational Health, Productivity Management

Allison L. Stanley, BSBC
Auburn University
Auburn, Alabama

Radio frequency identification (RFID) is not a new technology to the construction industry by any means and is used during construction through the process of tagging necessary items on a jobsite. The previous uses in the construction industry have typically focused on tracking material and equipment movement on a jobsite throughout the duration of a project. However, another useful area for the implementation of RFID on a construction jobsite could be tracking construction workers as they move around various locations within the site. This movement will be recorded through the placement of RFID tags on construction workers and by placing RFID readers at key areas on a jobsite. This data will be collected into a relational database, so that it can be used for tracking current worker movement and also analyze the movement of workers after the fact. Once the information about the location of a tag is gathered, this information will be represented in a visual context, to better understand worker movement within a construction jobsite. The tags provide the information necessary to create a visual tool depicting workers at various locations, updated with the worker movements around the RFID readers. The visualization software platform chosen here to achieve this visual model is Google Sketchup. Sketchup is a 3D conceptual modeling program, enabling users to sketch 3D building models of the building layouts. These simple layouts will be used to represent the background for worker icons to appear on a construction site. Sketchup will be combined with a scripting tool called Ruby to represent the movement of workers, in combination with the data stored from the above mentioned database. Since it is impossible to ascertain the exact location of an RFID tag, the methods used to deduce the approximate location and last known location of an RFID tag are discussed. The best practices of placing the RFID readers at appropriate locations on a jobsite are also discussed. The mechanics of placing RFID tags on the workers is addressed, as well as the privacy concerns regarding the data collected in the course of conducting this study. This type of information can provide construction managers with valuable insight into worker productivity, especially on large scale projects, by tracking the positions of workers in accordance with the work being done. Understanding where workers are spending their day can provide feedback into the efficiency of the number of workers on a task, as well as information on the efficiency of individual workers. Construction managers can also use this information to improve site efficiency by looking at the visual display of the areas on the site being under utilized and even areas overwhelmed with heavy activity. Along with site efficiency this information can highlight areas of safety concerns by monitoring worker movement in relation to areas of risk. This technology is a simple way to improve existing construction management practices and the way construction workers interact and function on a jobsite.

Key Words: RFID, Sketchup, Ruby, Visualization, Virtual Environment

Ladesha R. Moore, S. Kim MacGregor, Ph.D., Emerald M. Roider, Ph.D.
Louisiana State University
Baton Rouge, Louisiana

Construction related jobs account for 66% of all jobs in the United States. The industry is projected to be amongst the nation’s economic top ten largest sources of employment growth through 2012. Even with this growth, females only account for 9.6% of the construction workforce. Existing research regarding the shortage of females in construction management is limited and dated, mainly citing challenges faced by women in the field. Research is needed to study the actual experiences and perceptions of females pursuing college degrees in the field of construction today. These experiences and perceptions provide insight on how to address the lack of females in construction and related fields. This qualitative case study was designed to develop an understanding about the experiences and perceptions of two construction management undergraduate female students in the context of the Construction Management program at their university, which is housed in the College of Engineering at Louisiana State University. The program is the second largest in the college, but only 5% of enrolled Construction Management undergraduates are females, while the female enrollment for the entire college is approximately 16%. An individual phenomenological semi-structured interview was conducted with each participant to gain a better understanding of the experiences of underrepresented female students in the department. Three questions were asked of the participants: (1) How do students, particularly female students, become interested in Construction Management? (2) What obstacles are faced by female students pursuing this field? (3) How is the construction industry perceived by women, particularly female students? Based on the findings, it was interpreted that participants began with a lack of knowledge of the field, and then a turn of events and influences in the participants’ lives generated their interest. Obstacles cited in literature were not experienced by the participants in the department; however supportive faculty, acceptance by male peers and curriculum that is directly applicable to the field was indicated as advantages of the program. Although no obstacles were cited, the women indicated that there is a slow acceptance of women in the field. The findings from this study provide insight on the perceptions of females preparing to enter the construction arena through a degree program and potential pathways to address the lack of females in construction and related fields. The information obtained from this research contributes to the conversation regarding methods to increase the construction industry resource pool and provide innovative leaders of tomorrow.

Key Words: Females, Construction, Qualitative Research, Case Study

Somik Ghosh, PhD Candidate
Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University
Blacksburg, Virginia

The construction industry ranks high in the number of occupational incidents due to the complex and interdependent nature of the tasks. However companies using lean construction have been found to demonstrate better safety performance than the rest. The situation reflects the limitation of planning methods used in traditional construction companies that focus on project level planning, at the expense of production level planning. Lean construction involves stakeholders in the formal production planning process to minimize variability in workflow thus reducing probability of incidents. Considering the involvement of various stakeholders in the production planning process, it is hypothesized in this research study that the social interaction levels afforded by formal production planning have a positive impact on safety performance. The goal of this research study is to understand the role of social interaction in the formal production planning process and its impact on safety performance. A case study approach has been adopted where in-depth analyses of two projects, one following formal production planning and another following project planning, has been undertaken to illustrate the role of social interaction in each one of them. Weekly subcontractor coordination meeting has been selected as the unit of analysis. Data has been collected using three methods: direct observation, open-ended interview, and examination of archival data. Categories of social interaction are the predictor variables while recordable incidence rate (safety performance) is the response variable for this study. Robert Bales’ Interaction Process Analysis has been used to analyze the social interaction data. Analysis of social interaction data from each of the cases will provide individual profile of each groups’ interaction in the form of concept map. Safety performance data from the two projects will be compared to illustrate the role of social interaction in each of the cases, with the intent of highlighting the improvements to interaction and safety associated with production planning. Construction companies who are still reluctant to use production planning should be able to use the concept map to their benefit, and future researchers should be able to expand the map to include new and unexplored spaces. This poster presents the work in progress that is part of the author’s PhD dissertation.

Key Words: Social interaction, production planning, safety, lean construction

Jacqueline F. Stephens
Southern Polytechnic State University
Marietta, Georgia

The objective of this research study is to ascertain how courts determine a verdict in bid mistake cases. Defining “mistake” in the legal sense is the cornerstone to this research process. When delving into reference materials and old cases, it was readily apparent that mistakes come in many different types. Problems occur in determining different types: typographical, mathematical, clerical, or error in judgment. In the researched cases, the majority of mistakes are unilateral in nature – a misunderstanding or mistake made by one of the parties involved in a contractual agreement. After considering the nature of the mistakes, judges’ generally derive verdicts from the timing of the error’s admission: before the opening of the bid, after the opening of the bid, or after announcing the award. In cases where the admission was before the opening of the bid, the case does not end up in court but generally, the contractor cannot rebid on the project – even if there is a rebid. Outcomes vary regarding mistakes admitted after the opening of the bid and bestowing of the award depending on the various combination of mistakes. This research involved investigating each of these options through old case studies to determine the reaction of the court system. After researching, acquiring and analyzing the information needed to ascertain how courts determine a verdict in bid mistake cases, it became apparent that this information needed to be organized. Compiling the information from each case reviewed into several Excel tables depending on the topic: state rescissions, type of mistakes, timing of admission, and general case information is part of the analysis process. In addition, there is a need for a visual reference to depict a graphic demonstration of the variances between the different topics. The benefits of these tables and graphs are for contractors to be able to use them as a guide in current cases to hasten the legal process. All of these charts would make research quicker, more interesting, and beneficial for educators and contractors alike. Educators could begin to compare state and national averages, research trends, and see if the laws have changed much over the years or per state. Contractors could use these charts to help them determine if it was worth going to court in their state or not.

Key Words: bid mistake, unilateral mistake, bid error, clerical error

Rodolfo Valdes, MCSM
Clemson University
Clemson, South Carolina

This study assesses the implementation of the Social Sustainability (SS) teaching module developed for a Sustainable Construction course offered to civil engineering seniors and graduate students. Previous research revealed that similar students focus on environmental and economical considerations when they refer to sustainability. This teaching module increases their understanding about SS during the planning and design of construction projects, focusing on four categories: Corporate Social Responsibility, Community Involvement, Safety Through Design, and Social Design (Valdes-Vasquez and Klotz, 2010). Trochim’s (1989) and Novak’s (1990, 2010) concept mapping techniques are used as assessment tools in this teaching module. The first technique is used to establish a group pre-assessment of student knowledge (Kane and Trochim, 2007), serving as a point of discussion during the lesson. Novak’s technique is then used as a post-assessment, identifying the knowledge gained by the students and helping the instructors provide feedback. The results of this case study show that both groups, seniors (N1=60) and graduates students (N2=25), are more aware that sustainability refers not only to environmental or economic considerations but also includes a balance between the three pillars of sustainability. These results are encouraging in suggesting how to teach SS effectively. Future research could explore the implementation of this teaching module in other programs and institutions.

Key Words: Social Sustainability; Concept Mapping, Engineering Education; Design

Jason Stepp, Sanjeev Adhikari, Ph.D. and Ahmad Zargari Ph.D.
Morehead State University
Morehead, Kentucky

This study is an effort to align the curriculum of the Construction Management program at MSU (Morehead State University) with the needs of the construction industry. This study compares CM (Construction Management) programs at other Universities in Kentucky. Sustainability, Building Information Modeling and LEED practices are ever-growing practices within the industry that need to be introduced to students to make sure that they are well-versed in these concepts making them more marketable upon graduation. To improve the CM curriculum of different universities, data is collected by questionnaire surveys from construction managers, industrial people, construction faculties and construction students. Six Colleges/Universities (Northern Kentucky University, Eastern Kentucky University, Western Kentucky University, Morehead State University, Murray State University and ITT Technical Institute) offer programs in Construction Management in Kentucky. Students that graduate from the CM program at MSU are marketable in the local job market; however matching the curriculum to the current practices in the industry will improve their job prospects by making sure they meet the expectations of prospective employers. The curriculum audit will align the CM program with the industry and prepare students graduating from the CM program to knowledgeable in the current construction practices by data suggested by different group of surveys.

Key Words: CM Program, Curriculum, Universities in Kentucky, Construction Practices