In recent years, the cost and effort for developing video recordings have dropped to the point that it is now feasible for construction instructors to develop a personal library of video clips tailored to the needs of their course, much in the way that many instructors hold a collection of pictures related to their class topics.

The purpose of this article is to discuss how construction management instructor can develop and use a library of brief interviews in the form of video clips. It addresses the reasons and advantages of using video clips; resources and techniques for recording and editing the clips; and teaching strategies for their use. This article is based mainly on its author educational practice, and supported by references to published studies whenever possible.

The benefits of using diverse means for conveying educational contents have been well researched (e.g., Kolb, 1984, Jackson, 1990, Barron and Kysilka, 1993). Virtually all research studies arrive to a conclusion with which most educators would agree: "talking away" a class period is less effective than performing activities that include several sensorial experiences. The term "multimedia" has been coined to encompass a document or presentation that includes several delivery modes, and in practice, it is used almost exclusively for computer-based material (Senior and Miura, 1997). The growth in the use of multimedia during the last decade surpassed even the most optimistic predictions (Dringus 1999), and its effectiveness has been long recognized. For example, Orlansky and String (1979) report that computer-based multimedia instruction used in military training led to students reaching similar levels of achievement in 30% less time than a control group required using more standard approaches to training.

Video constitutes a form of such multimedia content delivery, and its effectiveness has been well documented (e.g., Bosco 1990, Cronin and Cronin, 1992). Moreover, video is particularly well suited to construction students. Research on the pedagogical effectiveness of multimedia and distance learning (Tucker, 2001) has shown that students benefiting the most from multimedia are those with a learning preference for direct experience and avoidance to authoritarian structure. Stein and Gotts (2001) found that 75.3% of construction students have a sensing-judging learning preference, thus matching the best category of multimedia learners. This percentage is remarkable high. Keirsey (1998) found that only 40% to 45% of the general population belongs to this learning preference category.

Guest speakers are an effective way to add depth, credibility and variety to a lecture, consistent with the learning preferences of most construction students. However, construction educators have to tackle with limitations intrinsic to their specialty. Despite construction being one of the most widespread activities in society, there are relatively few speakers available at the right time. Field personnel are busy with their projects, and frequently are terrified of speaking in public. There are relatively few consultants, practitioners and academics involved in construction research. Not surprisingly, many construction instructors are constantly on the hunt for suitable speakers.

Recorded interviews are a powerful addition to the pedagogical toolbox of any construction instructor. For example, a brief video clip of the course textbook’s author introducing a topic can entice students to read the book better than any coaxing or threatening attempted by the instructor. Similarly, an authority in safety can present very powerfully the case for, say, timely accident reporting. Or, a superintendent showing his field schedule can convince a skeptic student that CPM has a place in "real" projects. Such video clips do not replace the need for guest speakers in a well-rounded course delivery. Instead, they empower an instructor much in the same way that an instructor’s slide carrousel with pictures of construction equipment and operations has been a staple item in construction education, with the advantage of video and audio providing much richer contents than static pictures.

Professionally developed videos have been available to construction educators for many years. These videos are self-standing, not computer-based, and typically are longer than the type of more informal video clips addressed here. With time, the briefer type of video clips described here and other multimedia will find its way into instructional packages for construction. At the end of 2001, there are precious few true multimedia packages for higher education. For example, the publishing company Prentice Hall calls "activebooks" a series of traditional textbooks that now include a website, video clips and a range of other multimedia tools (e.g., Kotler and Armstrong 2002). No such package exists for construction yet.

A professional conference or trade exhibition provide opportunities to interview experts in their fields, to record equipment in operation, and to browse around in a city other than the instructor’s college town and record its best projects under construction. The importance of choosing an appropriate topic, which eventually translates into recording an appropriate operation or interviewing an appropriate person, should not be underestimated.

Interviewees often provide a different perspective of a topic, and usually provide examples of their practice that reinforce the point of a session. On the other hand, interviews are the most difficult type of video recordings, because interviewees tend to be very self-aware of the quality of the resulting clips. In the author’s experience, all the following factors should be kept in mind.

More practical advice for preparing interviews can be found online (Telg and Irani 2000), or in many books on digital video recording and editing (e.g., Rubin 2002, Collier, 2001, Long and Shenk, 2000).

The most significant hindrance to developing a personal video library used to be the cost of the required resources. However, at the end of 2001, cost is hardly a determining factor. Furthermore, the two main consumer-level computer operating systems, namely Windows and Apple, come with video processing software as a standard feature. Key issues in video hardware are discussed below.

1. Camcorder. A main decision for purchasing a camcorder is whether it should be digital or analog. Digital camcorders offer excellent resolution, and their prices dropped dramatically during 2001 (some good models cost less than $700). To process digital video, a personal computer must have an IEEE 1394 connection, also known as a Firewire port. If a computer does not have this as a standard feature, it must be acquired separately (at a cost of about $100). Although digital equipment appears to be a safer investment for an ever increasingly digital world, analog camcorders are equally effective for the type of applications discussed here. They cost significantly less than their digital counterparts (many acceptable models retail at less than $300), and the image resolution in Hi8, a common video format, compares to that of digital. The downside of analog formats is that they require of a video digitizer to input their signal to the computer. If an instructor already has an analog camcorder, or if the computer used to process the video is relatively slow, a video digitizer makes much sense.

2. Microphone. A lapel microphone is inexpensive (some common corded model retail for less than $20). However, compared to using the built-in camcorder microphone, a lapel microphone dramatically enhances the quality of the recording, especially when an interviewee speaks softly. Wireless microphones are more expensive (beginning at over $100), and an inexpensive wireless model can result in disastrously poor sound quality.

3. Lights. An experienced person can use natural light as the only lighting for an interview. However, most circumstances require the use of some artificial lighting. Most camcorders can accommodate a small lamp in their "hot shoe," or even have a built-in one. A second lamp greatly enhances the lighting quality, when properly located. All the previously referenced introductory books on video techniques cover the topic of lighting (the author uses two portable micro-lamps, each one costing less than $50).

4. Tripod. A tripod should be used for all interview recordings, without exception. The tripod should allow a smooth panning, in case that more than one person is being interviewed simultaneously. For the context of most interviews described here, it is more important to have a small, transportable tripod than a massive one, even at the expense of losing some high-end features.

5. Computer. The ideal computer should have an IEEE 1394 port, a processor with speed no less than the equivalent of an Intel Pentium III at 600 MHz, and plenty of free hard drive capacity: for example, a 15-minute digital video clip in raw (DV) format takes over 3 gigabytes of hard drive space. These requirements are quite reasonable for a new computer, but only a minority of computers built before 2001 can meet them. For older computers, a video digitizer (or software with compressing capabilities) solves almost all processor speed and space limitations. For example, a 15-minute video set at the highest resolution in Windows Media format takes less than 80 megabytes of hard drive space, resulting in a smaller file by a factor of 41.

6. Software. Video editing software has become extremely user-friendly and inexpensive. The latest releases of the two major consumer operating systems, namely Microsoft XP™ and Mac OS X™ include video editing applications (Movie Maker and iMovie, respectively). Thus, almost any new computer is ready to capture and process video clips, without any additional expense to the user. Many users, especially Windows users, should still consider an independent software package, since Windows Movie Maker only has relatively rudimentary features. The cost of video editing packages can vary greatly. For example, MovieDVsuite™ 3.0 includes an IEEE card and has a list price of $99, while Adobe Premiere™ 6.0, a professional-grade package, retails for $549. For the uses discussed in this article, even a basic video editor should be adequate.

One of the greatest advantages of developing a video clip using a computer is that the original video footage can be fine-tuned to include titles, professional-looking transitions between scenes, and precise start and end points, among many other possibilities. An instructor performing incidental work as a video editor should keep the clip as simple as possible. This article’s author has found that the most important features that should be mastered in video editing are starting and ending the clip with precision, and adding titles identifying the interviewees. Additional enhancements are almost always distracting to students, and can add substantial time to the editing effort. The specific steps to perform these enhancements depend on the software package being used.

A video clip takes cost, time and effort to develop. A video interview requires more preparation than a casual home video or taking pictures at an equipment trade show. On the other hand, a few video clips can enhance substantially a course delivery, and can be used for years. They are true investments in any instructor’s academic career. The list below is derived from the author’s experience, and therefore may not be representative of the average times for video professionals. However, this list can serve as a guide of the main items and effort required by an informed amateur to develop and process an interview.

1. Initial contact with the interviewee – negligible time.

2. Developing (and sending in advance) a list of questions to the interviewee – one hour.

3. Preparing the camera, lights, etc. for the interview – 15 minutes.

4. Recording the interview – 30 minutes.

5. Editing the recorded material – 2 to 3 hours (this includes: inputting the material to the computer; choosing suitable interview segments; cutting the segments; adding titles, if any; and the time taken by the computer to build the final clip).

The ultimate value of a video interview is its ability to enhance student learning. Each instructor has unique delivery preferences for their lectures, corresponding to individual personalities, subject of the course, and even constraints in audiovisual resources and computer savvy. Keeping in mind that there are many possible variations to course delivery, the following discussion encompasses the main alternatives for using video interviews.

The traditional transparency-based lecture, with pictures shown in an overhead projector, is being rapidly replaced by computer-based presentations. Software packages such as Microsoft PowerPoint™ contain features well beyond those practicable in non-computer based presentations. For example, slides are normally in color, bulleted lists can be shown one line at a time, and presentation handouts can be developed for the audience. Integrating pictures in class presentations is commonplace, but integrating video and audio is not as commonly used. Clips from a personal video library can be easily integrated to a computer-based class presentation. The mechanics of incorporating video into a presentation is very simple. In Microsoft PowerPoint, for example, the menu sequence is straightforward: Insert, Movies and Sounds, Movie from File. In the author’s experience, it is important to limit the duration of each video clip to five minutes or less, since a longer video can break the flow of the instructor’s presentation. Figure 2 shows a typical presentation slide used by the author.

A video clip can be edited in using software, and then the finished clip can be recorded back to videotape. The video clip can be shown using a regular VCR, as a self-standing feature in the class session. The author has found that many instructors with an "open-ended" lecturing style favor this method. "Open-ended" refers to the Socratic method used by some of the best instructors, who are capable of creating a "need-to-know" ambience in the classroom. The video is the response to this "need-to-know" point in the lecture, crafted so that the interview fits the moment. On the other hand, if the need to present the interview video does not happen, these instructors defer its showing, or even bypass the video altogether. Self-standing videos are useful, or even the only alternative, when a classroom lacks the hardware required for computer-based presentations, but there is a TV/VCR combination available.

This article’s author has had good results using audio-only clips. The need to use audio clips can arise from the lack of even a TV/VCR combination in the classroom, but furthermore, this approach can result from a deliberate strategy. As in the telephone interviews so commonplace in TV and radio stations, this article’s author has called colleagues or experts in a particular topic to answer a question raised in class. The conversation is recorded (always with the interviewee’s permission) and then processed, very similarly to a video clip. Although an audio library would be much less attractive than a video library, the sporadic use of an audio interview appears to be as effective as any video counterpart.

The following suggestions come from the author’s personal experience:

1. Read a book on video recording (even on recording home videos) before attempting your first interview. Furthermore, perform your first interview with a friend colleague, easily available in case that parts of the interview must be repeated.

2. Consider the issues discussed in the previous sections of this article for recording the interview. Particularly, control the tendency to zoom the image in and out, pause between each question and each answer (even if it feels awkward), and record as much material as possible.

3. Several short video clips are more effective than a long one. The author makes an individual clip for each question, or two questions at most. This strategy allows the discussion of each question with the class, and keeps students alert. A typical clip lasts between two and three minutes, although this is very dependent on the particular question and interviewee. The interviewee should be advised to keep answers less than five minutes long. An answer taking more than about eight minutes should be interrupted by asking the interviewee to repeat it more compactly.

4. If a computer-based presentation is used, each short video clip should have its own slide. The slide should include in its text the question that the interviewee is answering. The slide text can also include the critical issues mentioned by the interviewee in the video clip, which will be discussed with the class after the clip ends.

5. The video clip does not need to be full-screen. As mentioned in the previous paragraph, including relevant text in the slide containing the video help students understand the context of the topic being answered. Consequently, most of the clip should be a close-up of the interviewee’s face.

6. Every class has students to whom watching a video clip without falling asleep seems to be a challenge. Identify and help those students by sitting close to them, and commenting the clip as it develops.

Interviews are not, by any means, the only application of instructor-developed video clips. In any situation where a traditional slide show is used, video will do a comparable or better job. For example, teaching a construction operation is much easier by students watching the action than by viewing static pictures.

Condensing a long construction operation into a few minutes of watching time has considerable advantages over showing the operation in real time. The author has discussed in a previous article the advantages and mechanics of timelapsing video (Flanders et al., 1995, Senior and Swanberg-Mee, 1997). Timelapsing can be performed with essentially the same hardware and software used for normal video recording. However, there are some noteworthy differences. Digital camcorders record at most one hour video per tape, a time too brief to be usable in many cases. A full day’s recording would require changing the tape eight times, which is quite cumbersome. In contrast, some Hi8 (analog) camcorders record up to four hours per tape. This article’s author has recorded one-day operations in only two tapes, changing the tape and the batteries at midday. Another issue to consider is that not all video editing software comes with timelapsing capabilities. The software specifications should be checked if this feature is planned to be used.

An exciting application of video clips is assigning the development of course-related material to students. Student teams can record and develop interviews with local contractors, or analyze construction operations in timelapse. Many institutions have multimedia computer laboratories, where students can experiment with their material. The resulting video clips are presented to the class by the teams, in what is more than a regular homework assignment, but less than a final project (Senior et al., 1995). This activity works best with small classes.

Video clips offer plenty of pedagogical opportunities now, and they are likely to have even more in the near future. Two technologies appear especially worthy of note: video conferencing and asynchronous presentations.

Video conferencing allows the real-time communication between distant parties. Construction education is particularly appropriate for video conferencing, because of the growing emphasis for internships in many construction programs. Students could participate in class discussions from their internship sites. Alternatively, a remotely localized contractor or expert could be a guest speaker to the class, interacting with students at practically the same level of a on-site presentation. Commercial video conferencing facilities are available in many cities. However, these facilities are not inexpensive enough to be practical for the typical financial constraints of construction academia.

The breakthrough in academic video conferencing will happen when a conference can be held with reasonable image quality, and using resources normally afforded by a construction department. The promise of widespread availability of broadband internet access has not come to fruition, and has delayed the general use of video conferencing.

Asynchronous video presentations provide the ability to access a class material, including an instructor’s classroom delivery, from anywhere, at any time. Software with many asynchronous instruction elements is presently available to instructors. For example, WebCT™ and BlackBoard™ provide instructional tools over the Internet, such as viewing class electronic presentations (e.g., PowerPoint™ files), downloading class handouts, testing, and other class management tools. Most major colleges have campus-wide contracts for the use these software applications, and instructors do not have to pay additional fees to create a course website in WebCT or BlackBoard. Marsh et al. (1999) discuss in detail these and other online software packages.

An instructor can incorporate video into a course site as a file download or as a streamed presentation. A video download is impractical unless it is done with a high-speed Internet connection. IN contrast, a video stream keeps the video source in the web server, and sends video data over the Internet to the viewer. Two main video streaming software packages are RealSystem Producer™ and Microsoft Producer™. Both are relatively easy to use, and can be obtained as free downloads.

The nature of construction education makes asynchronous instruction a very attractive area. But its many advantages need to be weighted against the enormous effort needed to create a full-fledged course website. Some academic areas, such as accounting, have textbooks that include excellent web material and test question banks. Construction educators do not have available such material, which would make more reasonable the required effort to develop a course that includes video segments.

Instructor-developed interview video clips have been shown in this article to have great potential as an instructional device for construction education. The resources and overall effort required for their development are within reach of many, if not most, construction educators. Although there are no statistical data yet to substantiate their pedagogical effectiveness, studies done for other career specialties indicate that the learning preferences shared by most construction students are particularly well suited for video and other multimedia learning tools.

Implementing a video library has its challenges. Some construction management departments may be reluctant to fund the resources required for video production, especially in the weak economy environment of the early 2000s, and if only one faculty member is advocating for their acquisition. A critical mass of several instructors can justify such investment more easily, and help each other in the learning process. Another issue is resisting the lure to make a "perfect" video. As discussed in the body of this article, clips should be simple. Furthermore, research by Guzley et al. (2001) found that the physical quality of presentation media is less important than the quality of its contents. A related comment is that video clips can be overused by an instructor. Video should not be a primary instructional tool. As a guide, this article’s author has found that the time spent in presenting video should take ten minutes or less of each contact hour.

The definitive proof that many construction instructors probably need to adopt video or other multimedia is the generalized and successful use of these techniques by their peers. But, if every instructor waits for others to begin making use of these tools, the breakthrough will never happen. This article addressed this dilemma by offering an insight, from a practical and empirical perspective, of how video has been successfully used by the author. Research on the best uses and effectiveness of multimedia for construction education is still required to validate the extrapolation of studies performed in other professional areas and the experiences at the author’s personal level presented here.

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