RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN CONSTRUCTION JOB CHARACTERISTICS AND WORK OUTCOMES.

INTRODUCTION

One of the most pressing issues in the construction industry today is its declining productivity. Past studies have concluded that the construction industry contributes, in large measure, to the declining rate of productivity in the United States (Arditi,1985; Cremeans,1981). Also, a study conducted by the Business Roundtable (1983), a construc­tion industry organization, found that "a drop in construc­tion productivity in the U.S. is about 20% at the aggregate industry level" (p. 11). The industry's labor performance has been cited as poor. Additionally, worker absenteeism and voluntary turnover are very high.

Considering all these factors, one can suggest significant problems in worker motivation and overall job satisfaction. The psychological needs of construction craftsmen have not been adequately addressed by the contractors. This lack of sensitivity to the needs of construction craft workers has been criticized by many construction experts. The number of empirical studies conducted in the areas of construction worker motivation has been very limited as well (Laufer & Jenkins, 1982).

Bresnen et al. (1984) suggested that management must devise ways to increase the "satisfaction, morale, and motivation" of the, construction workers (p. 421). They argued that it would be wrong to apply findings of other behavioral research to construction without examining how the construction industry differs from other firms. They called for distinct motivational studies that incorporate all the job characteristics of the industry.

LITERATURE REVIEW

Job enrichment has been a subject of discussion in many organizational textbooks for decades. Also, it has been recognized as a good method of making employees develop feelings of satisfaction in their jobs. Studies have indicated that employees are more likely to improve their perfor­mance if their jobs are challenging and motivating to them. The theoretical basis for many current enrichment efforts is the Hackman and Oldham's (1980) job characteristics model (refer to figure 1).

Theoretical Framework on Job Characteristics Model

The model proposes that three conditions (critical psycho­logical states) are necessary in a job before high internal motivation can occur. First, the worker must experience the work as personally meaningful (experienced meaningful­ness); secondly, the worker must feel responsible for the outcome of his or her work (experienced responsibility); and finally, the worker must have knowledge of the results of his or her work (knowledge of results). The model also predicts that the five job core characteristics (skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy, and job feed­back) of a job influence the three critical psychological states. Specifically, "experienced meaningfulness" is in­fluenced by three job core characteristics. They include (a) skill variety, (b) task identity, and (c) task significance.

For a worker to experience his or her job as meaningful, a job must involve a variety of different activities (skill variety), requires completion of entire and identifiable pieces of work (task identity), and have a considerable impact on other people (task significance). In order for a worker to have a feeling of personal responsibility, his or her job must provide great latitude for individual discretion in carrying out the assigned responsibilities (autonomy).

Finally, it is essential that the job itself provides a feedback in order for the worker to have knowledge of his or her work outcomes. According to the model, three factors moderate the relationships between the job characteristics and inter­nal work motivation. They include (a) knowledge and skill, (b) growth‑need strength, and (c) "context" satisfaction. If a job is high in "motivating potential" (i.e., high in all job core characteristics), it is more likely that those workers who have sufficient knowledge and skill to perform well will experience significantly positive feelings as an out­come of their work. The opposite would be true for those workers who are not competent enough to perform well on the job. The second moderator (growth‑need strength) relates to the psychological needs of people. The psychological needs of people are very essential in finding out how an individual worker will respond to a job that is high in motivating potential.

The third moderator deals with the "contextual" satisfac­tion with the work itself. Specifically, the model predicts that an individual who is relatively satisfied with certain aspects of work context (such as pay, job security, co­workers, and supervisors) will likely "respond more posi­tively to enriched and challenging jobs than individuals who are not satisfied with those aspects of work context" (Hackman & Oldham, 1980, p. 86). If such individual also possesses strong growth-need strength, it is likely that a very high level of internal motivation will occur.

Motivating Potential of a Job

A motivating potential is a measure of the extent to which a job might be expected to be capable of creating an internal work motivation on the part of a worker. To compute the motivating potential score (MPS) for a job, the items measuring each of the five job core dimensions are aver­aged to arrive at a set of five summary scores. The MPS score is computed using the following formula determined by Hackman and Oldham (1980):

Based on this formula (Hackman & Oldham, 1980, p. 81), in order for any job to be high on the Motivating Potential Score (MPS), it must be high on at least one of the three job core characteristics of skill variety, task identity, and task significance. This is because these job core characteristics have a combined effect that could prompt experienced meaningfulness. In addition, a low score on one of the three job characteristics would not affect the overall motivating potential of a job because it can easily be com­pensated for by high scores on the two remaining job characteristics (Hackman & Oldham, 1980). Conversely, a low score on either au­tonomy or job feedback would reduce the overall mo­tivating potential of a job.

Related Research on Job and Individual Characteristics

Several researchers have used job characteristics model to conduct studies on the relations of job and individual characteristics to certain job outcomes (such as motivation and job satisfaction). However, only one study has been done in the construction area using this model. Specifically, Maloney and McMillan (1986) conducted a study among unionized construction workers in a Midwest City to assess their perceptions of their job and work environment. The subjects were asked to complete a series of questions related to their work. The authors used a job characteristics index (JCI) to measure their variables. While the results of their study have been helpful in understanding how the construc­tion union workers reacted to different job conditions, their findings could not be compared with others because that was the first time JCI was used in construction.

In a study designed to examine the conditions under which jobs would instigate the development of internal work motivation, Hackman and Lawler (1971) found that any jobs that are high on job core dimensions would likely lead to worker motivation, provided such worker has a desire for higher order need satisfaction. They also found that such a job would likely lead to employee job satisfaction and lower absenteeism.

In a similar study, Oldham, Hackman, and Pearce (1976) found that "employees who have strong growth needs and also are satisfied with the work context (i.e. with their pay, job security, co-workers, and supervisors) respond more positively to an enriched job than do employees who have weak needs for growth and/or dissatisfied with the work context" (p. 395).

Orpen (1979) conducted a field experiment to assess the effect of job enrichment on employee responses. His subjects were randomly assigned to either "enriched" or "unenriched" job conditions. The pretest‑posttest results showed that employees in the enriched group perceived their jobs to be more enriched than before. The enrichment also caused significant increases in employee job satisfac­tion, job involvement, and internal motivation. Griffin (1982) conducted a study to investigate the relationships among employee perceptions of task attributes and long-­term productivity and overall job satisfaction. His study involved 100 randomly selected manufacturing employees of a plant located in the Southwest. Using the job charac­teristics inventory scale, Griffin (1982) found strong posi­tive correlations between certain task attributes and produc­tivity and job satisfaction. Griffin concluded that "im­provements in the design of work may enhance such organizationally relevant outcome variables as job satisfac­tion and employee productivity" (p. 936).

 Loher and Noe (1985) applied a meta‑analytical technique to investigate the precise relationship between job charac­teristics and job satisfaction. Their results showed "mod­erate relation between job characteristics and job satisfac­tion" (p. 280). This relation was also found to be stronger for employees that were high in GNS and weak for employ­ees with low GNS.

Construction-Related Motivational Studies

To date, no major empirical study has been conducted to establish relationships between job and individual charac­teristics, and certain affective work outcomes. Borcherding and Oglesby (1974) conducted an exploratory study of productivity and job satisfaction in the construction indus­try. They found the construction job to be associated with worker job satisfaction. Their reports showed that "satis­faction and productivity lie in making the work flow smoothly rather than in job enrichment" (p. 413). Their findings also revealed that construction workers were sat­isfied with their job when they saw the results of their work. In a separate study of productivity in industrial construc­tion, Borcherding (1976) found a lack of motivation by construction workers on large projects due to the fact that they had very little or no satisfaction from their work. While these reports by Borcherding (1976) and Borcherding and Oglesby (1974) have helped construction researchers in understanding the factors affecting construction worker motivation and other work outcomes, these same reports have been criticized as suffering from a "series of concep­tual and methodological weaknesses" (Maloney & McFillen, 1984, p. 15).

Maloney and McFillen (1985, 1986) conducted motiva­tional studies on the importance unionized construction workers attached to various job‑related factors, and their satisfaction with each factor. They concluded that the degree to which construction workers would be satisfied with their work would depend, in large measure, on the nature of incentive their job and firm offer as well as their expectation of the reward they might receive.

STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

Several organizational studies have shown that the way a job is structured has a significant impact on the motivation and general satisfaction of workers. A large number of these studies have been conducted in the manufacturing and service environments. Many of the past research findings on the relationships between construction job attributes and work outcomes have been based on non‑empirical studies. Thus, the problem of this study was to investigate the degree to which employee‑perceived construction job characteristics were related to selected work outcomes (internal work motivation and general satisfaction). The Job Characteris­tics Model developed by Hackman and Oldham (1980) was used as the basis for conducting the study.

OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY

The following research questions were formulated as means of achieving the objective of this study:

Major Research question

What relationships exist among employee‑perceived job characteristics, critical psychological states, and affective work outcomes as specified in Hackman and Oldham's (1980) model?

Subsidiary Questions:

1.   What differences exist among craftsmen of different construction trades on employee‑perceived job characteristics?

2.   What differences exist among craftsmen of different construction trades on growth‑need strength (GNS)?

3.   What differences exist among craftsmen of different construction trades on motivating potential scores (MPS) of employee‑perceived job characteristics?

4.   What differences exist among craftsmen of different construction trades on affective work outcomes and critical psychological states?

METHODOLOGY

An exploratory research method was used to conduct this study. The population for the study consisted of construc­tion craftsmen who were registered members of three established construction union organizations in a midwestern state. These organizations included bricklayers, carpen­ters, and electricians.

Research Instruments

Hackman and Oldham's (1980) job characteristics model served as the conceptual basis for this study. The model has been previously discussed (see Figure 1). The major focus of the study was on the relationships among employee perceived job characteristics, the resulting affective work outcomes, and the constructs in the model.

A job diagnostic survey QDS), an instrument specifically designed to measure the principal components of the job characteristics model was used to collect the needed infor­mation. The JDS "measures several job characteristics, employees' experienced psychological states, employees' satisfaction with their jobs and work context, and the growth‑need strength of respondents" (Hackman & Oldham, 1980, p. 275).

A liken-type scale was used for all the questions. The respondents were asked to respond to a series of statements related to their job. The following key variables were measured on a seven‑point scale:

1. Employee-perceived job characteristics.

2. Critical psychological states.

3. Affective work outcomes.

4. Individual growth needs strength.

Data Collection

Before the final draft of the instrument was prepared, it was submitted to a group of research experts for their necessary critique. After all the suggestions were incorporated, the instrument was pilot‑tested with six local construction craft workers to ascertain that it was free of ambiguity in content, wording, and format. The job diagnostic survey question­naires were then mailed to 650 craftsmen. A cover letter accompanied each questionnaire explaining the purpose of the study and insuring the individual's right to privacy and confidentiality. Each of the unions' business agents also wrote additional cover letters to their members in support of the research. To facilitate early return, a self-addressed, stamped envelope was enclosed with each questionnaire. A follow‑up letter was sent to each survey participant after 2 weeks. Atotalof236(36.3%)questionnaires were returned by the close of the survey. Only 230 (35.4%) questionnaires were usable. Data analysis was performed using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS). Analysis involved frequency distributions, means, standard devia­tions, correlation matrix, and one-way analysis of variance.

FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS

This study was conducted to investigate the characteristics of construction work, as perceived by the construction craftsmen, and the relationships of these perceptions to work outcomes. This section deals with the analysis of the study findings, including the conclusions and recommenda­tions.

Demographic Characteristics of the Craftsmen

Table 1 presents the distribution of questionnaire response rates among the groups. As can be seen from the Table, the total response rate was 36.3%. Of the total number returned, only 35.4% were usable.

Other demographic characteristics are as follows:

 1. The majority (98.7%) of the craftsmen who responded to the survey were men.

2. Approximately 12% of the craftsmen were 29 years old or under. About 32% were in the age bracket of 30 and 39 years, and 28% were in the age bracket of 40 and 49 years. Those in the age bracket of 50 years and over accounted for about 28%.

3. An overwhelming majority (92%) of the craftsmen had com­pleted a 12th grade education.

4. A large number (57%) of craftsmen had completed an ap­prenticeship training, and 19% had a college degree.

5. About 38% of the craftsmen have been with their respective union for over a period of 20 years. About 24% have spent less than 5 years with their union.

6. About 44% of the craftsmen have been in their current trade for over a period of 20 years. About 35% have spent between 10 and 19 years, and 21 % have spent less than 10 years.

7. About 48% were carpenters, andabout34%were electricians. Bricklayers accounted for about 18%.

8. A majority of the craftsmen (67%) bore the occupational title of journeyman, and about 10% were apprentice. Those who bore titles other than apprentice or journeyman accounted for about 23%.

Findings Related to the Research Questions

Table 2 presents the summary statistics for the bricklayers, car­penters, and electricians on the job core characteristics (includ­ing MPS), critical psychologi­cal states, and the affective work outcomes.

Major Research Question: What relationships exist among em­ployee‑perceived job character­istics, critical psychological states, and affective work outcomes as specified in Hackman and Oldham's model?

In order to determine the extent to which the above variables relate to each other as specified in the model, a correlation analysis was performed among all the variables for all the three groups of respondents (see Table 3). The following findings were observed:

1.      The employee‑perceived job characteristics (skill va­riety, task identity, task significance, autonomy, and job feedback) were significantly correlated with the model‑specified critical psychological states (experi­enced meaningfulness, experienced responsibility, and knowledge of results).

2.      The three critical psychological states were also found to relate significantly to general satisfaction and inter­nal work motivation.

3.      The NIPS was significantly correlated with the five employee‑perceived job characteristics. Also, the NIPS was found to be significantly associated with the 5 three critical psychological states.

4.      The employee‑perceived job characteristics were found to be significantly associated with general satisfaction and internal work motivation.

Subsidiary Research Question: The following is a summary of findings relative to the subsidiary questions:

1.      No statistically significant differences were observed in the perceptions of craftsmen regarding the job core characteristics.

2.      Carpenters had higher GNS than the electricians. Based on the job characteristics model, the GNS relates to the psychological needs of employees. These psychologi­cal needs are very crucial in examining how an indi­vidual employee would react to a job that is high in motivating potential.

3.      The craftsmen did not differ in their perceptions re­garding the MPS of their jobs.

4.      Positive correlations exist between the critical psycho­logical states and internal work motivation and general satisfaction.

5. Bricklayers, carpenters, and electricians did not differ from each other in their general satisfaction level. However, carpenters had higher internal work motiva­tion than the electricians.

6. The craftsmen did not differ in their perceptions in regard to the critical psychological states. Thus, none of the three craft areas can be considered to be higher than the others on these dimensions.

CONCLUSIONS

The findings of this study confirmed the construct validity of the job char­acteristics model. Also, the study revealed significant findings con­cerning construction craftsmen and their work environments. Thus, the way construction work is planned, scheduled, and controlled have di­rect bearings on workers' motiva­tion and general satisfaction. Nei­ther bricklaying, carpentry, nor elec­trical work can be considered to be higher than the others on the job core dimensions of skill variety, task iden­tity, task significance, autonomy, and job feedback. Because carpen­ters had higher GNS than the electri­cians, it is more likely that carpen­ters would respond more positively

to enriching and challenging jobs than would the electri­cians. An analysis of GNS scores obtained in the past studies showed that construction craftsmen have GNS that are similar to those of professional‑technical workers.

Considering the overall means reported for all the groups, it appears, generally, that construction work is very high in motivating potential. Thus, construction work has the capacity to arouse worker interest and create internal work motivation. These findings contradicted an earlier report by Maloney and McFillen (1986) that "construction work appears to have little potential to motivate the workers performing the work" (p.145). Also, construction workers are more likely to be highly motivated and satisfied with their jobs if such jobs provide the three critical psychologi­cal states.

Because carpenters had higher internal work motivation than the electricians, they would likely respond more positively to a job that is high on WS than would the electricians. Overall, the craftsmen had positive attitudes toward their jobs as evidenced by their mean scores on the job diagnostic survey.

RECOMMENDATIONS

The findings obtained in this study have significant implications for the construction industry as well as for fat research. The following recommendations are suggested:

·        Contractors should structure their jobs to include the five job core dimensions (skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy and job feedback). It is expected that the higher the jobs are on these job core dimensions, the more workers will develop strong interest in developing personal responsibility for their work.

·        Contractors should consider improving worker moti­vation and general satisfaction with job context factors such as compensation, job security, conducive envi­ronment, etc.

·        Contractors should consider redesigning their jobs to improve their motivating potential. Employees with high growth need strength will likely be discouraged by a job that is low in motivating potential.

·        Construction workers have different needs and desire. Therefore, contractors should try to identify those workers with high growth needs, and then redesign their jobs to meet their challenge.

·        Not all workers will respond positively to enriched jobs. Therefore, contractors should consider matching jobs with the skills, experience, and growth needs of workers.

·        Contractors may combine certain tasks in order to increase their skill variety and task identity with the ultimate goal of maximizing worker motivation and job satisfaction.

·        Future research could include a test of the moderating effect of employee‑growth need strength on task per­ception‑work outcomes relationship.

·        A field experimental study should be conducted to assess the effects of job enrichment on construction worker satisfaction, motivation, and productivity.

·        Future research could also examine the relationships between construction job characteristics and long‑term productivity.

·        Future research should include both union and open shop workers to investigate the similarities and differ­ences in their levels of work outcomes.

REFERENCES

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